5.6 Introduction

5.6.1. In Detail ...

5.6.2. Technical Details ...

5.6.3. Maintenance

5.6 Introduction

Communications Infrastructure has become a key element of any commercial development .... 

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5.5 Introduction

5.5.1. In Detail ...

5.5.2. Technical Details ...

5.5.3. Maintenance

5.5 Introduction

Sewage & Rain Water are similar and today they  have to be or at least should be treated separately for a number of reasons:

1. cost of discharge
2. a range of environmental considerations
3. logistics
4. investment cost
5. need and use of water for landscaping
6. .....

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5.4 Introduction

5.4.1. In Detail ...

5.4.2. Technical Details ...

5.4.3. Maintenance

5.4 Introduction

Water is a product and the supply of water is a service - a utility.

Water comes in many forms. For human consumption we need clean water. The degree of what is considered clean varies widely around the world. However, in countries where clean drinking water is supplied to households, schools, shops, etc. in pipes running through streets to their point of use most of this clean water is actually not used for drinking and the high level of cleanliness is not actually required.

A lot of water is flushed down toilets and instantly polluted again.

Historically it was not like this. When centralised water supplies where developed most toilets were not water flushed, not even in the house. Thus water was used mainly for direct human consumption and the improvements should not be underestimated in improving health and well-being of large populations in cities.

The relatively low cost of clean water then let to the introduction of water flushing toilets moving them into the centre of our houses. Ever increasing hygiene, industrialisation and other creature comforts drove up water consumption to today's 160l or so per day per person in industrialised countries.

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5.3 Introduction

5.3.1. In Detail ...

5.3.2. Technical Details ...

5.3.3. Maintenance

5.3 Introduction

In the wider sense Gas is prime energy as it is found naturally. But not all gas is prime energy - see below.

Like crude oil gas needs to be processed before it is pumped through pipelines to our buildings (or delivered by bottle or into tanks).

We can distinguish between:

• Fossil natural gas
• Town gas (not prime energy)
• Biogas (prime energy - but not prime energy if produced in reactors)
• Crystallized natural gas - Hydrates (not yet recoverable)

Natural gas is today the main form of gas used. The production of Town Gas generates a high degree of pollution and is not an effective process.

Bio-gas is an interesting alternative to pumping gas around and towards securing energy supplies. But its production is minuscule at present considering the total demand for gas. It also produces pollutants and contributes to global warming. So, the term "bio"is not giving it a full green light in todays global warming debate.

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5.2 Introduction

5.2.1. In Detail ...

5.2.2. Technical Details ...

5.2.3. Maintenance

5.2 Introduction

District Heating & Cooling is obviously not prime energy.

District heating & cooling might be coming from a location some kilometres away and may be run by a utility company, a cooperation or a local community. District heating & cooling could also come from a CHP station on site.

District heating or cooling plants may be part of a large power station. Some district heating plants may only produce heat from oil, gas, geothermal wells, bio-gas, pellets, straw, etc.

Ultimately the CHP station will be run in some commercial form and from the contractual and commercial point of CM, tenants and owners of a retail mall there may be no difference whether the district heating is on site or not. The provided heating or cooling energy has to be paid for.

District heating & cooling may have some advantages in investment and even in running cost. However, CM, tenants and owners will have little influence over the cost charged and less alternatives to choose if cost go up dramatically for some reason.

Such systems also need to be scrutinised in respect of risk and supply stability.

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5.1 Introduction

5.1.1. In Detail ...

5.1.2. Technical Details ...

5.1.3. Maintenance

5.1 Introduction

Electricity is not prime energy. Yes, it just comes out of the socket - but the ease with which we have it available often lets us forget what electricity is.

Electricity is produced by transforming prime energy (natural - wind, hydro-power & fossil + nuclear fuels) into the flow of an electric charge.

Why is it relevant to think about this?

1. For environmental reasons - what ever we believe about global warming - reducing C02 is a good and important thing to do.
2. To understand the cost, dependence and risks in this essential service.

In the process only around 30-35% of the prime energy used is turned into electricity. To generate 1 kW hour of electricity we need 3kW of wind, hydro power, oil, gas, etc.

The other 65-70% are lost to heat and friction of the mechanics required to produce and transport the power to our socket. This thought alone could lead to considering to produce electricity locally - at least in part - if the heat that would be generated is useful in some ways as well and if the concept of local generation is viable in financial terms and for supply security.

Even by using wind and hydro-power only 30-35% of the energy entered into the system is turned into electricity - the rest is friction, heat, transmission loss and water or wind flowing on less powerful by the factor of approx. 3.

Careful use of any resource should be mankind's basic and prime responsibility. War generations and people living in developing countries are used, are forced to be used, to this principal.

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